Apparatus for Detecting Contaminants in a Liquid and a System for Use Thereof

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are apparatus and methods for detecting and quantifying contaminants in aqueous solutions. In one embodiment, an apparatus for the detection of contaminants within a liquid comprises a sensor and a controller. The sensor comprises a film and a transducer configured such that, during use, a first surface of the transducer is in fluid communication with a liquid, and the film is disposed between the first surface and the liquid. The film can be a polymeric material capable of hindering the transport of a non-desired species therethrough. The controller is in operational communication to the transducer, and is configured to determine the concentration of contaminants within the liquid.

BACKGROUND

Disclosed herein are apparatus and methods for detecting and quantifyingcontaminants in a liquid, and systems for use thereof.

The detection of trace (e.g., less than 1% by volume) and microtrace(e.g., less than 1.0×10⁻⁶% by volume) levels of chemical contaminants inaqueous solutions is important for monitoring the condition of numerousapplications. For example, ultrapure water (i.e. water having amicrotrace concentration of ionic species) is desirable in manyindustrial processes including, but not limited to, the semiconductor,pharmaceutical, agricultural, chemical, energy, and food processingindustries. In one specific example, nuclear reactors can employultrapure water for cooling purposes. The ultrapure water can comprisecontaminants, which cause corrosion and other problems in the reactorsfluid handling system. Therefore, a system and method for detecting andquantifying these contaminants is extremely desirable.

The detection of chemical contaminants has evolved significantly overthe last few decades. There are several techniques currently availablefor the detection and quantification of trace levels of ionic species inaqueous solutions. These techniques include ion chromatography (IC),inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP), massspectrometry (MS), ICP-MS, and capillary electrophoresis (CE).Additionally, electrochemical, optical, and hybrid chemical sensors(e.g., combinations of different techniques such as surface plasmonresonance with anodic stripping voltammetry), have been applied fortrace analysis of ionic species in water. Unfortunately, these methodscan require extensive sample preparation or are limited by poorselectivity, inadequate detection limits, interference effects, baselinedrift, and contamination during sampling or handling.

IC is the primary means of ionic species detection in aqueous solutions.For example, nuclear power plants have predominantly used in-line ionchromatography for routine monitoring of ionic species. IC methodsoriginally comprised column ion exchange chromatography, which requiredlarge sample volumes, wet chemical analysis of collected fractions, andtook hours to perform. More recently, IC methods have been developedthat require significantly smaller sample volumes, operate virtuallyunattended under computer control, and can be conducted in only minutes.However, modern IC methods still suffer from disadvantages that maketheir use impractical in many situations, such as expense, complexity,and maintenance. Furthermore, the IC's currently attain an analysis timeof approximately ten minutes, which is still too long in manyapplications.

ICP and ICP-MS are also used for ionic species detection. Inductivelycoupled plasma-isotope dilution mass spectrometry (ICP-IDMS) is suitableas a routine method for trace element and element speciation analysis;however, it is limited by the lack of commercially availableisotope-labeled spike compounds for species-specific isotope dilutionand by the complicated system set-up required for species-unspecificICP-IDMS analysis. Therefore, there is a strong need to develop a moresuitable detection method.

CE, which employs 10 to 100 times lower effluent volumes and provides aquicker measurement time than IC (typically less than a three minutes),is another common means of detecting ionic species. CE also has itslimitations, e.g., there are practical limits to the amount of voltagethat can be applied and to the shortness of the capillary tube. Further,the sample must be introduced in a band of finite width, and a finitevolume is needed for reliable detection. Additionally, the heating ofthe electrolyte in the tube due to extremely high voltage gradientscauses problems, such as undesirable zone broadening or even boiling ofthe electrolyte and a total breakdown of the electrophoretic process.Such limitations make the use of capillary zone electrophoresisimpractical for many applications.

In light of the drawbacks associated with the current techniquesemployed for the detection and quantification of species in aqueoussolutions, there is a current need for a detection method and adetection system that is free from the aforementioned limitations aswell as limitations such as significant interference effects, baselinedrift, and unintended water contamination due to handling.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are an apparatus and method for determining theconcentration of contaminants within a liquid, and systems for usethereof.

Disclosed herein are apparatus and methods for detecting and quantifyingcontaminants in a liquid. In one embodiment, an apparatus for thedetection of contaminants within a liquid comprises a sensor and acontroller. The sensor comprises a film and a transducer. The sensor isconfigured such that, when in use, a first surface of the transducer isin fluid communication with the liquid and the film is disposed betweenthe first surface and the liquid. The film is a polymeric materialcapable of hindering the transport of a non-desired speciestherethrough. The controller is in operational communication to thetransducer, and is configured to determine the concentration ofcontaminants within the liquid.

In another embodiment, an apparatus for the detection of contaminants ina liquid comprises: a sensor array and a controller. The sensor arraycomprises: a first film having a first surface and a second surface, afirst purge chamber disposed in fluid communication with the secondsurface, a second film having a bottom surface and a top surface, asecond purge chamber disposed in fluid communication with the topsurface, a first transducer disposed in the first purge chamber, and asecond transducer disposed in with the second purge chamber. During use,the first surface of the film can be disposed in fluid communicationwith the liquid. The bottom surface of the film can be in fluidcommunication with the first purge chamber. The controller is inoperational communication with the first transducer and the secondtransducer, and is configured to determine the concentration ofcontaminants within the liquid.

In yet another embodiment, a nuclear power plant comprises: a nuclearreactor configured to produce energy and a contaminant detectorconfigured to detect a contaminant in water. The detector comprises asensor comprising a film and a transducer, and a controller connected inoperational communication to the transducer. The sensor is configuredsuch that, when in use, a first surface of the transducer is in fluidcommunication with the water and the film is disposed between the firstsurface and the water. The film is a polymeric material capable ofhindering the transport of a non-desired species therethrough. Thecontroller is configured to determine a concentration of thecontaminant.

The above described and other features are exemplified by the followingfigures and detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Refer now to the figures, which are exemplary embodiments, and whereinthe like elements are numbered alike.

FIG. 1 is an illustration of an exemplary contaminant detection system(CDS).

FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensor.

FIG. 3 is an illustration of an exemplary transducer.

FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensor.

FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensor array.

FIG. 6 a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensor array.

FIG. 7 is illustrates an exemplary method for operating the contaminantdetection system (CDS).

FIG. 8 is an illustration of an exemplary complex impedance graph.

FIG. 9 is an illustration of an exemplary complex impedance graph.

FIG. 10 is an illustration of an exemplary complex impedance graph.

FIG. 11 is an exemplary graphical look-up table.

FIG. 12 is an exemplary illustration of a partial component analysis(PCA) graph.

FIG. 13 is an exemplary illustration of a frequency shift graph.

FIG. 14 is an exemplary illustration of a peak width of imaginary signalcomponent graph.

FIG. 15 is an exemplary illustration of a peak intensity of the realsignal component graph.

FIG. 16 is an exemplary illustration of a second principal component asa function of experimental time graph.

FIG. 17 is an exemplary illustration of first and second principalcomponents as a function of experimental time graph.

FIG. 18 is an exemplary illustration of a multivariate Q-residualstatistics control chart graph.

FIG. 19 is an exemplary illustration of a multivariate Hotelling-T²statistics control chart graph.

FIG. 20 is an exemplary graphical representation selectivity andsensitivity responses generated during Experiment 1 for a transducer.

FIG. 21 is an exemplary graphical representation selectivity andsensitivity responses generated during Experiment 2 for a transducer.

FIG. 22 is an exemplary graphical representation selectivity andsensitivity responses generated during Experiment 3 for a transducer.

FIG. 23 is an exemplary graphical representation selectivity andsensitivity responses generated during Experiment 4 for a transducer.

FIG. 24 is an exemplary graphical representation of conductivity andpotential for sulfate sensor in Experiment 5.

FIG. 25 is an exemplary graphical representation of original andcorrected responses for a sulfate sensor generated during Experiment 5.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein is an apparatus and method for the detection andquantification of contaminants in a liquid (e.g., in an aqueoussolution). The apparatus for detection, referred to as the contaminantdetection system (hereinafter referred to as CDS), comprises acontroller connected in operational communication to a sensor that isdisposed in an aqueous solution. The sensor comprises transducer(s) andchemically responsive film(s) (hereinafter referred to as FILM) that areintegrated with a manifold. The method for detection comprises analyzingthe aqueous solution for contaminants, detecting a measured signal, anddetermining the concentration of an impurity in the solution.

Referring now to FIG. 1, an exemplary contaminant detection system (CDS)2 is illustrated, wherein a controller 6 is operably connected to asensor 4. The sensor 4 is disposed in fluid communication with a liquid8, which can be flowing through a conduit 18. The sensor 4 is capable ofproviding information to the controller 6 which can be utilized todetermine the concentration of contaminants (e.g., ionic species) withinthe liquid 8.

Referring now to FIG. 2, an exemplary sensor 4 is illustrated whichcomprises a transducer 10 that is disposed in contact with a film 12,wherein both are disposed within a manifold 16. A surface of the film 12that is opposite the surface in contact with the transducer 10 isdisposed in fluid communication with the liquid 8, which comprises tracelevels (e.g., small quantities) of contaminants (not shown). Wires 14are connected in electrical communication to the transducer 10 and tocontroller 6 (not shown) to provide electrical communicationtherebetween. Although the current embodiment employs wires 14, it is tobe apparent that alternative embodiments can achieve communicationsbetween the transducer 10 and the controller 6 without the use of wires14, such as using wireless communications (e.g., radio-frequencycommunications using a RFID transducer). Further, the communications forany of the embodiments described herein can utilize any novel or knowncommunication standard (e.g., Bluetooth (industrial specification forwireless personal area networks (PANS), also known as IEEE 802.15.1.),DECT (digital European cordless telephone), DSRC (dedicated short rangecommunications), HIPERLAN (high performance radio local area network(set of local area network communication standards)), HIPERMAN (highperformance radio metropolitan area network), IEEE (Institute forElectrical Engineers), IRDA (Infrared Data Association standards), RFID(radio frequency identification), WiFi (wireless fidelity), WiMAX (namecommonly given to IEEE standard 802.16), xMAX (a radio frequency (RF)modulation and encoding technology), ZigBee (wireless network conformingto IEEE standard 802.15.4), and so forth, as well as combinationscomprising at least one of the foregoing) to communicate between thetransducer 10 and the controller 6.

During use, the sensor 4 is capable of providing information to thecontroller 6 that can be utilized to determine the concentration of acontaminant within the liquid 8. In general this is accomplished byemploying the transducer 10 to provide electrical information to thecontroller 6, which varies based on the quantity of ions that passthrough the film 12. To enable the controller to determine theconcentration of a specific contaminant within the liquid 8, the film 12is configured to allow the passage of a desired contaminant (e.g., theions of the contaminant that are being evaluated) and restrict, eitherpartially or completely, the passage of non-desired contaminants (e.g.,additional contaminant that are not being evaluated) through the film12.

The film 12 generally comprises a polymeric material that is chosenbased on its ability to allow the passage of the specific contaminanttherethrough. To be more specific, an exemplary polymeric materialemployed for the film 12 can have a glass transition temperature that isbelow the temperature at which the sensor will operate, therebyproviding a semi-viscous state, which enables the diffusion of thespecific contaminants therethrough. Additives can be incorporated withinthe polymeric materials employed for the film 12 to tailor the diffusionof species in the film 12. Once a film 12 exhibits a desirable glasstransition temperature and/or rate of diffusion, the polymer matrix canthen be doped with an ion exchange material having a positive ornegative charge. The specific ion exchange material will be based on thecharge of the contaminants within the liquid that are to be analyzed.For example, ion exchange materials having a negative charge are usedfor positively charged contaminants, positively charged ion exchangematerials are used for negatively charged contaminants. It is also to beunderstood that neutral charged films can be used for contaminantshaving a neutral charge. For detection of ions in water, the filmcomposition is chosen to provide a selective binding process of an ionof interest using ionophores. Ionophores are added to the polymericmaterial to increase the selectivity of the film 12 and to furtherfacilitate the transport of the contaminant through the film. Likewise,ionophores and/or ion exchange materials can also be added to thepolymeric material to limit the diffusion of non-desired contaminants(e.g., interferants) through the film 12. Examples of ionophores forsulfate detection are zinc phthalocyanine and1,3-[bis(3-phenylthioure-idomethyl)]benzene. Examples of ionophores forchloride detection include4,5-bis-[N′-(butyl)thioureido]-2,7-di-tert-butyl-9,9-dimethylxantheneand meso-tetraphenylporphyrin manganese(III). Examples of ionophores forzinc detection include3-[(2-furylmethylene)amino]-2-thioxo-1,3-thiazolidin-4-one and1-(2-pyridylazo)-2-naphthol. Plasticizers can be added to a polymersensor film formulations as a lipophilic phase to facilitate iontransport in the sensor film (for example, bis(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate(DOS), 2-nitrophenyl octyl ether (NPOE), acetophenone (AP), dibutylphthalate (DBP), nitrobenzene (NB). Other components can be also addedto the sensor film composition, for example, ion exchangers (e.g.tridodecylmethylammonium chloride).

Polymer films can be used as the matrix material for ion sensors becausethey can exhibit inherent permselectivity that results from theirchemical composition, they are available in a wide variety ofchemistries, they are stable over long periods of time, and theirphysical and chemical properties and selectivity can be modified by theaddition of other components (plasticizers, ion exchangers, ionophores,etc.). Permselectivity, a desirable trait, occurs because ions exhibit,to varying degrees, hydrophilic or lipophilic characteristics based ontheir hydration enthalpy.

Exemplary polymers that can be employed for the film 12 are polysulfone,polyaniline, poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate), poly vinyl chloride,polyurethane, acrylate copolymer, and combinations comprising at leastone of the foregoing polymers. In addition, polymers produced from thesol-gel reaction of silicon alkoxides (e.g., tetraethoxysilane (TMOS) ortetraethoxysilane (TEOS)) provides effective means to prepare silicathrough the hydrolysis and condensation reactions at ambienttemperatures. The choice in the processing conditions such as the waterto alkoxysilane ratio, pH, temperature, and the specific solventemployed, allows the control of the physical properties (e.g., poresize, surface area, and porosity) of the film 12. Organosilaneprecursors having the general formula (R_((4-X))Si(OR′)_(X), (wherein Rand R′ represents the desired reagent and/or functional group and X=1 to3) can be hydrolyzed and condensed with or without the silicon alkoxides(i.e., TMOS or TEOS) to produce silica containing the target functionalgroups R covalently attached, which will effect the specific physicalproperties (e.g., mechanical flexibility, pore size, porosity andhydrophobicity) of the resulting material.

The mild condition of the sol-gel reaction allows the encapsulation ofion sensing reagents into the sol-gel matrix. These agents can be alsocovalently attached to the matrix by binding to the alkoxysilaneprecursors. Once these reagents are integrated into the matrix either byphysical encapsulation or by chemical bonding, they form complex withthe target contaminant upon exposure and provide signals throughtransducers. The porous nature of the sol-gel materials provides thesensing reagents high degree of freedom to move or to reorient insidethe pores to form the complex. The flexibility can be further providedby replacing R of organosilane precursor with bulky groups such asphenyl, ethyl or benzyl groups or by reducing the number of alkoxygroups for example to two. The reduced cross-linking density with organofunctional groups also contribute to the increase in the mobility ofcontaminants in the matrix and the reduction in the response time

Some of the organo functional groups on the precursor silane increasesthe hydrophobicity of the silica network and prevents swelling inaqueous environments, which is beneficial for the discrimination ofnon-target contaminants.

In one specific embodiment, benzyltriethoxysilane can be used incombination with tetraethoxysilane to reduce the cross-linking densityand to increase the hydrophobicity. In another embodiment,tetraethoxysilane, dimethyldiethoxysilane, methyltriehoxysilane,benzyltriethoxysilane, and combinations comprising at least one of thefollowing can be employed as a precursor.

Exemplary materials that can also be employed for the film 12 comprise,polysulfones, poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate), polyaniline, polyalkylenes(e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, polyalkylene terephthalate (such aspolyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate)), polycarbonate,acrylic, styrenes (e.g., impact-modified polystyrene,acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, styrene-acrylonitrile),poly(meth)acrylate (e.g., polybutyl acrylate, polymethyl methacrylate),polyamines, polyamides, polyethers (e.g., polyetheresters andpolyetherimides), polyesters, polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene ether,polysiloxanes, polysaccharides, polysulfates, polysulfides,polyurethanes, polyvinyl acetates, polyvinyl alcohols,polyvinylchloride, and so forth, as well as combinations comprising atleast one of the foregoing.

The thickness of the film 12 will affect the ionic transporttherethrough. Therefore, the specific dimensions of the film will bedetermined based upon the desired ionic transport properties such astime, diffusion rate, and so forth. In one example, films 12 can beemployed that comprise a thickness of about 0.1 to about 200micrometers. In one specific example, a polysulfone film 12 can beemployed that comprises a thickness of about 10 micrometers. In anotherspecific example, a sol-gel film 12 can be employed having a thicknessof about 100 micrometers.

The transducer 10 can be any electrochemical transducer that can provideinformation to the controller 6 which can be utilized to determine theconcentration of a contaminant within the liquid 8. One exemplarytransducer 10 is illustrated in FIG. 3, wherein an exemplary transducer10 comprises a first electrode 30 and a second electrode 32 that areindividually connected in electrical communication to interdigitatedfingers 34 (combined these can generally be referred to as theelectrode). The electrode is disposed on a base 36. The transducer 10illustrated in FIG. 3 can be employed in any of the embodimentsdescribed herein and is not limited. It is to be understood thatalthough several embodiments illustrate transducers 10 having wires 14,a wireless transducer is interchangeable therewith.

The first electrode 30, second electrode 32 and the interdigitatedfingers 34 comprise a conductive metal (e.g., gold, platinum, orcopper), metal alloys (e.g., nickel-copper alloys), or other conductivematerials that enable the function of the transducer 10. The base 36 cancomprise a polymeric film, such as polyimide or a material, such assilicon oxide, aluminum oxide, and so forth.

The exemplary transducer 10 illustrated within FIG. 3 operates based onthe principle that the electrical properties measured by the controller6 between the interdigitated fingers increases with the quantity of ionsthat pass through the film 12 and contact the transducer 10 (e.g., ionsdisposed in operational communication between the interdigitatedfingers). The electrical properties measured can be complex impedance atmultiple frequencies, electrochemically-modulated impedance, electricalcurrent, and electrical potential, as well as combinations comprising atleast one of the foregoing.

One exemplary method, the linear response method can be employed tomeasure impedance. To be more specific, in the linear response method,the system is perturbed by a sine wave current or potential having asmall amplitude, which produces a response that contains only thefirst-order terms of the Taylor-expanded non-linear current-voltagerelationship. Generally, two “modes” of operation of the method can bedistinguished. The first mode is the measurement of the impedance as afunction of the frequency of the small amplitude sinusoidal potentialperturbation that is superimposed on a direct potential bias. Theimpedance spectrum is measured at varied values of the direct potential.This method is named Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, orImpedance Voltammetry. The second mode is the superposition of asingle-frequency sinusoidal potential on a scanned or stepped directpotential and measurement of the responding sinusoidal current as afunction of the direct potential. This technique is named AlternatingCurrent Polarography or Alternating Current Voltammetry. In this caseessentially the reciprocal of the impedance, called admittance, isobtained.

Ion-selective conductometric microsensors do need a separate referenceelectrode, wherein the ion detection is accomplished by the measurementof the bulk conductance of a thin ion-selective film 12 that contains anion-complexing agent. The magnitude of the signal (conductivity) can berelated to the content of the primary ion in the analyzed water. Tomonitor the film 12 conductance it is deposited on top of a pair ofthin-film interdigitated electrodes. The sensor operation is based onthe specific and reversible ion co-extraction from the liquid into thesensing film that contains a specific ionophore. The ion co-extractionchanges the bulk conductance. The ionophore in the film supports thespecific solubilization of the cations into the film, which issimultaneously accompanied by the co-extraction of the anions in orderto comply with the condition of electroneutrality. To minimize thisanion interference, the liquid can be buffered with a largeconcentration of lipophilic anions.

In potentiometric sensors, the analytical information is obtained fromthe relationship between the potential of the working electrode coatedwith an ion-selective sensing film 12 and the contaminant concentrationin the liquid. Because the potential of a single electrode cannot bemeasured, a reference electrode is used in combination with the workingelectrode. A sensing (or working) electrode of a potentiometric sensoris coated with a sensing film 12 also known as a sensing membrane. Suchfilms 12 can be a formulated sol-gel, glass, or inorganic crystal or aformulated polymer film 12. The film 12 composition is chosen in orderto impart a potential that is primarily associated with the ion ofinterest (e.g., the specific contaminant) via a selective bindingprocess at the film-electrolyte interface. The magnitude of the surfacepotential of the film 12 is directly related to the activity or numberof primary ions of interest in the liquid (e.g., the aqueous solution).The mechanisms and models that describe the selective response ofpotentiometric sensors to ions of interest include chemisorption andphase-boundary potential.

It is to be apparent that alternative transducers can be employed aswell. For example a four-electrode transducer can be employed. Yet evenfurther, a radio frequency identification (RFID) can be employed,wherein a RFID tag is coated with a sensing film to form an RFID sensorthat can be employed as the transducer 10, or in combination with atransducer 10. In this embodiment, the RFID sensor can transmitinformation to a suitable device. Yet even further, the RFID sensor canbe disposed within the conduit 18 and transmit information therethrough,wherein the conduit 18 comprises walls formed from nonconductivematerial(s), such as glass or plastic. These RFID sensors providemulti-parameter monitoring with an individual sensor with simultaneousdigital ID functionality that automatically provides information aboutthe sensor and its location (e.g., its correct assembly, production andexpiration date, sensor calibrations, correction coefficients, and soforth). The radio frequency transducers can transmit the electricalinformation at a frequency of 80 kHz to 200 kHz; 5 MHz to 1.0 MHz; or 9MHz to 16 MHz.

The liquid 8 can be delivered to the sensor 4 in bulk through a conduit18 (e.g., a pipe, tube, and so forth), a vessel (e.g., container, testtube, flask, bottle, and so forth, not shown), or in a small quantity(e.g., such as supplied by a pipette). Regardless of the supply methodor quantity, the liquid 8 can be preconditioned prior to contacting thesensor 4 such that the properties of the liquid 8 are modified and/orstandardized. For example, the liquid 8 (e.g., an aqueous solution) canbe temperature adjusted (e.g., heated or cooled), filtered, pressurized,stirred, mixed with chemical(s) (e.g., modifiers), and so forth, as wellas combinations comprising at least one of the foregoing.Preconditioning the liquid 8 can be beneficial in systems wherein thesensor 4 (e.g., transducer 10 and/or film 12) is influenced by thecharacteristics of the liquid 8. In such systems, preconditioning canimprove the repeatability and/or sensitivity of the sensor 4 or increasethe sensors response, and so forth. For example, properties such ionicdiffusion, conductivity, impedance, as well as other properties can beeffected by the temperature of the liquid 8, which can influence thesensor 4 response. Further, the ability to precondition the liquid 8offers the ability to analyze the liquid 8 under various conditions(e.g., temperature and/or pressure). For example, a test can beconducted wherein the liquid 8 is tested at multiple temperatures, whichcan provide additional information regarding the ionic transport of thecontaminant of interest, or could even provide information regarding thepresence of non-desired contaminants that could affect the electricalinformation supplied by the sensor 2, 40, and so forth.

The manifold 16 is employed to secure the transducer 10 and film 12.However, it is to be apparent that the manifold is not necessary inapplications wherein the film 12 is bonded to the transducer 10. Themanifold can comprise any material that is capable of securing thetransducer 10 and the film 12, and is resistant to prolonged exposure(e.g., greater or equal to about six months, or more specificallygreater than or equal to about one year) to the liquid 8.

Illustrated in FIG. 4, is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensor40 comprising an alternative configuration, wherein a purge chamber 42is disposed between a transducer 10 and a film 12. To be more specific,the sensor 40 comprises a film 12 disposed in fluid communication with aliquid 8 flowing within a conduit 18. A surface of the film 12 that isopposite the side in contact with the liquid is fluidly connected to apurge chamber 42, wherein a purge media 44 can flow. The purge chamber42 is also defined by a transducer 10 that is disposed in fluid contactwith the purge media 44 flowing within the purge chamber 42. On a sideof the transducer 10 that is opposite the side in contact with the purgechamber 42, a wire 14 is connected in electrical communication to thetransducer 10 and the controller 6 (not shown). The purge chamber 42 isfurther defined by the manifold 24, which secures the transducer 10,wire 14, and film 12. Also attached to the manifold 24 are an inlet 46and an outlet 48, through which the purge media 44 can flow. Optionally,additional probes can be employed in the sensor. For example,conductivity probe(s) (not shown) can be located in contact with theliquid 8, e.g., in and/or outside of chamber 42. Similarly, temperatureprobe(s) (i.e., temperature sensors) can be located in thermalcommunication with the liquid to enable temperature determination. It isto be understood however, that a wireless transducer can be employed asan alternative or in addition to the transducer 10 illustrated.

In use, the sensor 40 is capable of providing information to thecontroller 6 that can be utilized to determine the concentration of acontaminant within the liquid 8. In general, the sensor 40 is operatedin a sensing mode and a purge mode. In the sensing mode, flow of thepurge media 44 is stopped, and ions from the liquid 8 migrate throughthe film 12 and diffuse into the purge media 44 within the purge chamber42. The transducer 10 provides electrical information to the controller6 (not shown) based on the quantity of ions that are diffused within thepurge media 44. In a purge mode, the flow of the purge media 44 isinitiated. Upon flowing of the purge media 44 through the purge chamber42, a majority, or all, of the ions allowed to pass through the film 12are purged (e.g., washed) from the purge chamber 42.

The ability to purge the sensor 40 of ions offers notable advantages.Firstly, the ability to purge enables the sensor to return to acalibrated state, or self-calibrate, between measurements. For example,if the sensor is calibrated in the presence of the purge media 44, aftera purge mode, the sensor 40 will return to the calibrated condition.Further, if it is determined that benefits are exhibited by calibratingthe sensor 40 prior to each sensing mode (e.g., improved measurementaccuracy), the sensor 40 can be calibrated during the purge mode. Asecond notable advantage realized through the ability to purge thesensor 40 is the reduction of interference effects. To be more specific,the accuracy of the sensor 40 can be affected by the accumulation ofnon-desired contaminant (e.g., contaminants that are not be evaluated)within the sensor. This is due to the fact that the electricalinformation measured by the transducer 10 is effected by theaccumulation of these non-desired contaminants. Therefore, the abilityto purge these non-desired contaminants between measurements ensurestheir accumulation does not affect the sensors accuracy. Yet further, topurge the ions from the purge chamber, the purge media 44 can also beheated, pressurized, and/or diluted with a chemical reagent.

The purge media 44 employed will be capable of purging all, or amajority, of the ions that pass through the film 12 from the purgechamber 42. Further, the purge media 44 will be a purified form of theliquid 8. For example, in systems wherein water is the liquid 8,purified water is employed as the purge media 44.

The sensor 40 will provide an accurate measurement of the concentrationof a contaminant within the liquid 8 when the concentration of theliquid 8 and the concentration of the contaminant within the purgechamber 42 equilibrate. Therefore, it is desirable to minimize thevolume of the purge chamber. To do so, valves or other means ofselectively hindering fluid communication between the purge chamber 42and the inlet tube 46 and outlet tube 48 can be employed.

Referring now to FIG. 5, a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensorarray 50 is illustrated, wherein the sensor array 50 comprises a firstsensor 52, a second sensor 54, and a third sensor 56 (collectivelyreferred to as sensors), that are disposed in fluid communication withan liquid 8 flowing within a conduit 18. The sensor array 50 is capableof providing electrical information to a controller 6 from each of thesensors 40 via wires 14. Each sensor 40 is fluidly connected to an inlettube 46 and an outlet tube 48 that are capable of supplying a purgemedia 44 to purge the purge chamber 42 within each sensor 40.

The sensor array 50 can be employed to determine an average contaminantconcentration within the liquid 8. For example, the sensor array 50 canprovide three sets of electrical information to the controller 6 (e.g.,one set of electrical information for each sensor (52, 54, and 56). Theinformation can then be analyzed, and an average contaminantconcentration can be determined. In this embodiment, the sensors areconfigured similar to one another (e.g., having the same film 12).

In an alternative embodiment, the sensor array 50 can be capable ofsupplying electrical information to the controller 6 based upon the timedependent migration of the desired contaminant through the film 12. Tobe more specific, duration of time required for the desired ion to passthrough a film 12 is affected by presence and/or concentration ofnon-desired contaminant(s) within the liquid 8. Therefore, the sensorscan comprise films 12 of the same material(s) (e.g., polysulfone) thatdiffer in thicknesses. In this configuration, the duration of timerequired for the electrical information supplied by each sensor to reacha plateau, or reach a specific level, can be evaluated and utilized bythe controller 6 to determine if non-desirable contaminants areaffecting the ion transport of the desired contaminant and so forth.

In an alternative embodiment, the sensor array 50 can employ sensors 40having differing films 12, which would therefore alter the electricalinformation supplied to the controller 6 by each sensor 40. For example,a sensor array 50 comprising differing sensors 40 can be employed toreduce interference caused by the presence of non-desirable contaminantswithin the liquid 8 for the purpose of increasing the accuracy of ameasurement of the desired contaminant within the liquid 8. To be morespecific, a first sensor can be employed to provide electricalinformation to the controller 6 based on a first contaminant, which isthe desired contaminant to be measured. However, two additioncontaminants, a second contaminant and a third contaminant, are known toobscure the accuracy of the first contaminant concentration within theliquid 8. Therefore, a sensor array 50 can be configured with a secondsensor comprising a film 12 configured to allow the passage of thesecond contaminant therethrough, and a third sensor comprising a film 12configured to allow the passage of the third contaminant therethrough.In this configuration, the electrical information supplied by the threesensors can be analyzed by the controller 6. If the controller 6determines that the second sensor did not detect the second contaminant,and the third sensor did not detect the third contaminant, theinformation received from the first sensor (assuming the presence of thefirst contaminant) is determined to be accurate and not obscured by thepresence of the second or third contaminant.

Further, in an alternative embodiment, if the presence of either thesecond contaminant or the third contaminant is determined, thecontroller 6 can be capable of accounting for the concentration of thesecontaminants to determine the accurate concentration of the firstcontaminant within the liquid 8.

Illustrated in FIG. 6, is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary sensorarray 60, wherein the sensor comprises a stacked configuration. To bemore specific, the sensor array 60 comprises a manifold 62 comprising atop surface 64, left side 66, a right side 68, a back side 70, a frontside 72, and a bottom 74 (hereinafter if the terms top, left, right,back, front, or bottom are used they are used with respect to thesedesignations). The bottom 74 of the manifold 62 is disposed in contactwith a conduit 18 through which a liquid 8 flows. The manifold 62comprises a test window 76 disposed through the bottom 74 of themanifold such that the liquid 8 is in fluid communication with a firstfilm 80, which is secured on all edges 82 (e.g., back edge, left edge,right edge, and front edge) by the manifold 62 such that the liquid 8cannot flow around the edges of the first film 80.

The first film 80 has a top surface that is opposite the bottom surfacein contact with the liquid 8. The top surface is disposed in fluidcommunication with a first purge chamber 82, which is in fluidcommunication with the bottom surface of a first transducer 84. The topsurface of the first transducer is 84 is in fluid communication with asecond purge chamber 86, which is in fluid communication with a with thebottom surface of a second film 88. The top surface of the second film88 is in fluid communication with a third purge chamber 90, which is influid communication with a with the bottom surface of a secondtransducer 92. The top surface of the second transducer is 92 is influid communication with a fourth purge chamber 94. Hereinafter, thefirst purge chamber 82, second purge chamber 86, third purge chamber 90,and fourth purge chamber 94 can be generally referred to as the purgechambers. Likewise, the first transducer 84 and the second transducer 92can be referred to as the transducers, and, the first film 80 and secondfilm 88 can be referred to as the films. The transducers 10 areconnected in electrical communication to a controller 6 (not shown) bywires 14, or in an alternative embodiment, the transducers can bewireless.

The first transducer 84 and second transducer 92 are secured by themanifold 62 at the their left and right edges, and the front and backedges are not secured by the manifold 62. In this configuration, thefirst purge chamber 82 and the second purge chamber 86 are fluidlyconnected to each other and to an inlet tube 46 and an outlet tube 48.Likewise, the third purge chamber 90 and the fourth purge chamber 94 arefluidly connected to each other and to a second inlet tube 98 and asecond outlet tube 100.

In operation, the sensor array 60 can be employed to determine anaverage contaminant concentration within the liquid 8. For example, thesensor array 60 can provide two sets of electrical information to thecontroller 6 (not shown). The information can then be analyzed, and anaverage contaminant concentration can be determined. To be morespecific, the first film 80 can be configured to allow variouscontaminants within the liquid 8 to migrate therethrough and distributethemselves within the first purge chamber 82 and second purge chamber86. Once therein, the contaminants affect the electrical informationprovided by the first transducer 84 to the controller 6. Likewise, thesecond film 88 can be configured to allow various contaminants withinthe first purge chamber 82 and second purge chamber 86 to migratetherethrough and distribute themselves within the third purge chamber90. Once therein, the contaminants affect the electrical informationprovided by the second transducer 92 to the controller 6.

The second film 88 can comprise the same film material or a differingfilm material from the first film 80 to alter the specific contaminantsthat are allowed through each film (the first film 80 and the secondfilm 88).

In one embodiment, the controller 6 can evaluate the electricalinformation supplied by the sensor array 60 based upon the time of themigration of the desired contaminant through the film 12. For example,if the first film 80 and the second film 88 comprised the samematerials, the time elapsed before the electrical information suppliedby the first transducer 84 is similar to the electrical informationsupplied by the second transducer 92 can be compared by the controller.

In another embodiment, the first film 80 and second film 88 can comprisethe same film materials however differing thicknesses. In thisconfiguration as well, the duration of time required for the electricalinformation supplied by each sensor to reach a plateau, or reach aspecific level, can be evaluated and utilized by the controller 6 todetermine if non-desirable contaminants are affecting the ion transportof the desired contaminant and so forth.

In an alternative embodiment, the first film 80 and the second film 88can employ differing materials to reduce interference caused by thepresence of non-desirable contaminants. To be more specific, the firstfilm 80 can be configured to allow ion transport of the desiredcontaminant; however, a non-desired contaminant can migrate therethroughas well. The second film 88 can be configured to allow ion transport ofa non-desired contaminant (but not allow the transport of the desiredcontaminant). In this configuration, the controller 6 can evaluate theelectrical information supplied by the first transducer 84 and thesecond transducer 92 and determine if a non-desired contaminant ispresent and/or what concentration of the non-desired contaminant passedthrough the first film 80. The controller 6 can thereafter determine ifthe electrical information from the first transducer 84 accuratelyrepresents the concentration of the desired contaminant in the liquid 8.Further, if the presence of the second contaminant is determined, thecontroller 6 can be capable of accounting for its concentration anddetermining the accurate concentration of the desired contaminant (to bediscussed further below).

In yet another embodiment, the first film 80 and the second film 88 canemploy differing materials, and the first film 80 can be configured toallow ion transport of the desired contaminant; however, a non-desiredcontaminant can migrate through as well. However, the second film 88 canbe configured to not allow ion transport of a non-desired contaminantand allow the transport of the desired contaminant. In thisconfiguration, the controller 6 can evaluate the electrical informationsupplied by the first transducer 84 and the second transducer 92 anddetermine if a non-desired contaminant is present and/or whatconcentration of the non-desired contaminant passed through the firstfilm 80. The controller 6 can thereafter determine if the electricalinformation from the first transducer 84 accurately represents theconcentration of the desired contaminant in the liquid 8. Further, ifthe presence of the non-desired contaminant is determined, thecontroller 6 can be capable of accounting for its concentration anddetermining the accurate concentration of the desired contaminant (to bediscussed further below).

The controller 6 can be any apparatus that is capable of receivinginformation from the sensors 4, 40 and/or sensor arrays 50, 60,interpreting the information, and determining the concentration ofcontaminants in the liquid 8. To be more specific, a computer (i.e., anyelectronic device capable of interpreting electronic information) can beemployed that comprises a data acquisition system that is operablyconnected to the sensors (4, 40) and/or sensor arrays (50, 60). To beeven more specific, a computer is a suitable electronic device capableof accepting data and instructions, executing the instructions toprocess the data, and presenting the results. Therefore, computer 64 canbe a microprocessor, microcomputer, a minicomputer, an optical computer,a board computer, a complex instruction set computer, an ASIC(application specific integrated circuit), a reduced instruction setcomputer, an analog computer, a digital computer, a molecular computer,a quantum computer, a cellular computer, a superconducting computer, asupercomputer, a solid-state computer, a single-board computer, abuffered computer, a computer network, a desktop computer, a laptopcomputer, a scientific computer, a scientific calculator, or a hybrid ofany of the foregoing. More specifically, the controller 6 is amicroprocessor coupled to a ROM (read only memory).

The information received by the controller 6 is electronic information,such as a signal or the like, or more specifically, resonant compleximpedance, complex impedance, electrochemically-modulated compleximpedance, electrical current, and/or any other electrical informationthat sufficient to provide the controller 6 the ability to determine theconcentration of contaminants within the liquid 8. In general, theinformation will be received in analog form. If so, the samplingfrequency should be greater than about 0.0001 hertz (Hz), morespecifically, greater than about 1.0 Hz, and, even more specifically,greater than about 100.0 Hz. In one example, the controller can receiveinformation at about 400 Hz. The information can also be received indigital form and/or be converted by the controller into digital form(e.g., utilizing an analog to digital converter):

To determine the concentration of a contaminant in the liquid 8, thecontroller 6 can compare the information received from thesensors/sensor arrays to memory (e.g., a look-up table, a data array, acalibration curve, and so forth). The memory accessed by the controller6 is desirably programmed by the manufacturer based upon experimentaltest results, however can be empirically determined by the controller 6or user (e.g., anyone operating the CDS). The memory can be connected inoperational communication to the controller 6 or integral therein.

The operations employed by the controller 6, can be embodied in the formof computer-implemented processes and/or other apparatuses forpracticing the processes. These operations can also be embodied in theform of computer program code containing instructions embodied intangible media, such as floppy diskettes, CD-ROMs, hard drives, or anyother computer-readable storage medium, wherein, when the computerprogram code is loaded into and executed by a computer or controller,the computer becomes an apparatus for practicing the method. The methodsmay also be embodied in the form of computer program code or signal, forexample, whether stored in a storage medium, loaded into and/or executedby a computer or controller, or transmitted over some transmissionmedium, such as over electrical wiring or cabling, through fiber optics,or via electromagnetic radiation, wherein, when the computer programcode is loaded into and executed by a computer, the computer becomes anapparatus for practicing the method. When implemented on ageneral-purpose microprocessor, the computer program code segmentsconfigure the microprocessor to create specific logic circuits.

To be most specific, the technical effect of the actions of thecontroller 6 is to evaluate electrical information acquired from asensor and/or sensor array and determine a contaminant concentrationwithin a liquid 8. When these capabilities are embodied in software,firmware, hardware or some combination thereof, the embodiment can be anindividual article for sale or included as a part of a computer systemor sold separately.

The contaminant detection system (CDS) 2 can be operated by theexemplary method illustrated in FIG. 7, wherein the method comprises:analyze a liquid, compare information to memory, and determine thecontaminant concentration within the liquid. A liquid 8 can be analyzedby a sensor 4, 40, or sensor array 50, 60, that is disposed in fluidcommunication with the liquid 8. For example, in a nuclear reactor(e.g., a nuclear power plant), a sensor array 60 can be disposeddirectly on a pipe comprising cooling water (the liquid 8), whereby thecooling water can be directly analyzed without any additionaloperations. However, in an alternative embodiment, the liquid 8 can besampled using a pipette, or other sampling means, and disposed in fluidcontact with the sensor 4, 40 and/or sensor array 50, 60. It is alsonoted that any number of sensors can be employed, which can be disposedin any numerous configurations and provide differing types ofinformation (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow rate, and so forth).

During the analysis of the liquid 8, the controller 6 receiveselectrical information (e.g., resonant complex impedance, compleximpedance, electrochemically-modulated complex impedance, and/orelectrical current) from the sensor(s) 4, 40 and/or sensor array(s) 50,60. For example, referring now to FIG. 8, an exemplary illustration of acomplex impedance graph is illustrated. On the x-axis, Z′ is illustratedin mega-ohms, wherein Z′ is the real part of complex impedance. On they-axis, Z″ is illustrated in mega-ohms, wherein Z″ is the imaginary partof complex impedance. As can be seen in the graph, five data plots areillustrated. The first plot, labeled Sample 1, comprised water having 0parts per billion by weight (ppb) chloride ions. The second plot,labeled Sample 2, comprised water having 5 ppb chloride ions. The thirdplot, labeled Sample 3, comprised water having 25 ppb chloride ions. Thefourth plot, labeled Sample 4, comprised water having 50 ppb chlorideions, and the fifth plot, labeled Sample 5, comprised water having 100ppb chloride ions. As can be seen from the data, the various plotsexhibited marked differences in impedance responses, and can thereforebe utilized to quantify the concentration of the contaminant within thesample.

Referring now to FIG. 9, another exemplary illustration of a compleximpedance graph is illustrated. On the x-axis, Z′ is illustrated inmega-ohms, wherein Z′ is the real part of complex impedance. On they-axis, Z″ is illustrated in mega-ohms, wherein Z″ is the imaginary partof complex impedance. As can be seen in the graph, five data plots areillustrated. The first plot, labeled Sample 1, comprised water having 0ppb sulfate ions. The second plot, labeled Sample 2, comprised waterhaving 5 ppb sulfate ions. The third plot, labeled Sample 3, comprisedwater having 25 ppb sulfate ions. The fourth plot, labeled Sample 4,comprised water having 50 ppb sulfate ions, and the fifth plot, labeledSample 5, comprised water having 100 ppb sulfate ions. Again, thevarious plots exhibit marked differences in impedance responses, whichallows the graphs to be employed to quantify the concentration of thecontaminant within the sample.

Referring now to FIG. 10, yet another exemplary illustration of acomplex impedance graph is illustrated. On the x-axis, Z′ is illustratedin mega-ohms, wherein Z′ is the imaginary part of complex impedance. Onthe y-axis, Z″ is illustrated in mega-ohms, wherein Z″ is the real partof complex impedance. As can be seen in the graph, five data plots areillustrated. The first plot, labeled Sample 1, comprised water having 0ppb zinc ions. The second plot, labeled Sample 2, comprised water having5 ppb zinc ions. The third plot, labeled Sample 3, comprised waterhaving 25 ppb zinc ions. The fourth plot, labeled Sample 4, comprisedwater having 50 ppb zinc ions, and the fifth plot, labeled Sample 5,comprised water having 100 ppb zinc ions. As can be seen yet again, thevarious plots exhibited marked differences in impedance responses.Therefore, the responses can be utilized to quantify the concentrationof the contaminant within the sample.

Upon receiving the information, it can be conditioned utilizing filters(e.g., bandwidth filters, voltage filters, and sampling filters),converters (e.g., analog to digital converters), signal processors(e.g., Fourier waveform processors, wavelet transform processors, and soforth), buffers, and so forth. Regardless of conditioning, theinformation can be stored in memory (e.g., random access memory) forcomparison to known information in the next step of the method.

Once the controller 6 has received information from the sensor(s) 4, 40and/or sensor array(s) 50, 60, the controller 6 advances to the secondstep, wherein the information is compared to known information stored inmemory (e.g., a look-up table, data array, calibration curve, and soforth), During the comparison, aspects of the information received arecompared to known information to then provide the controller 6 with anyadditional information needed to determine the concentration of aspecific contaminant within the liquid 8. The aspects of the informationcan be specific characteristics such as peak amplitude, frequency,phase, and so forth. In one example, a controller receives impedanceinformation from a sensor 40 and temperature information from athermocouple disposed in fluid communication with the purge chamber 42of the sensor 40, wherein the impedance is 55 kilo-ohms and thetemperature is 27° C. From this information, the controller 6 canreference a look-up table, such as that illustrated in FIG. 11 anddetermine that the temperature plot will be interpolated between the 20°C. plot and the 30° C. plot, with respect to an algorithm (the impedanceresponse in the exemplary embodiment is a logarithmic function oftemperature), to provide a 27° C. plot from which the correspondingconcentration can be determined. At this point, the controller 6 canadvance to the third step of the method wherein the concentration of thecontaminant is determined.

In the third step of the method, the controller 6 utilizes anyinformation accessed from memory to determine the contaminantconcentration within the liquid 8. The concentration can be calculatedutilizing algorithms, interpolation, extrapolation, calculations, andany other technique, as well as correlated based on information gatheredby, or known by, the controller 6. For example, continuing with theexample above, once the controller 6 has determined that the 27° C. plotis to be interpolated from the 20° C. and the 30° C. data plots, the 27°C. plot is interpolated and utilized to determine at 27° C. and 55kilo-ohms the corresponding concentration is 240 parts per billion(ppb), as illustrated in FIG. 11.

In addition, at any step of the exemplary method the controller 6 candetermine if the information received is acceptable to utilize todetermine the concentration of the contaminant of interest in the liquid8. For example, during the second step of the method wherein theinformation received is compared to memory, the controller 6 can receiveadditional information, such as from an additional sensor 40 in thesensor array 50 or from the second transducer 92 in sensor 60, whereinthe additional information can be utilized to determine if a highconcentration of an non-desired contaminant has adversely affected theinformation or can be employed to account for the specific concentrationof the non-desired contaminant.

In an alternative embodiment, the controller 6 can be capable ofemploying multivariate analysis tools to quantify the concentrationsfrom the electrical information, such as canonical correlation analysis,regression analysis, principal components analysis, discriminantfunction analysis, multidimensional scaling, linear discriminantanalysis, logistic regression, and/or neural network analysis.

Multivariate analysis tools are especially applicable wherein a sensorarray 50, 60 is employed since the amount of electrical informationreceived by the controller 6 can be massive. To that end, multivariateanalysis tools offer several advantages over univariate calibrationmethods. Firstly, signal averaging is achieved since more than onemeasurement channel is employed in the analysis. Also, theconcentrations of multiple species may be measured if they are presentin the calibration liquid. A calibration model is built by usingresponses from calibration standard solutions. The analysis of unknownliquids will suffer if a species is present in the liquid that is notaccounted for in the calibration model. This is mitigated somewhat bythe ability to detect whether a liquid is an outlier from thecalibration set. Multivariate calibration approaches permit selectivequantitation of several species of interest in a liquid (e.g., water)that has multiple species (e.g., contaminants) and interferences usinglow-resolution instruments such as sensors 4 with sensing films 12 whenoverlapping responses from different species preclude the use ofunivariate analysis.

In one embodiment, principal components analysis (PCA) was used toextract the desired descriptors from the dynamic data. PCA is amultivariate data analysis tool that projects the data set onto asubspace of lower dimensionality with removed co-linearity. PCA achievesthis objective by explaining the variance of the data matrix X in termsof the weighted sums of the original variables with no significant lossof information. These weighted sums of the original variables are calledprincipal components (PCs). Upon applying the PCA, the data matrix X isexpressed as a linear combination of orthogonal vectors along thedirections of the principal components:

X=t ₁ p ^(T) ₁ +t ₂ p ^(T) ₂ + . . . +t _(A) p ^(T) _(K) +E  (Equation1)

where:

-   -   t is the score    -   p are the loading vectors    -   K is the number of principal components,    -   E is a residual matrix that represents random error, and    -   T is the transpose of the matrix.        Prior to PCA, data was appropriately preprocessed, such as by        auto scaling

To demonstrate the applicability of multivariate analysis, a passiveRFID sensor with a nominal frequency of 13.56 megahertz (MHz) wasimmersed into pure water. Variable concentrations of NaCl were made andthe RFID sensor was put in contact with about 600 and 1,000 ppb of NaCl.Exposures were made in several replicates. Measurements were performedusing a network analyzer that measured three parameters from thewireless sensor including frequency shift, peak width, and peakintensity, as shown in FIGS. 13, 14, 15, respectively. Results ofmultivariate analysis are depicted in FIG. 12, wherein a scores plot ofthree principal components of dynamic data shows a complex relationbetween measured signals from one RFID sensor. The relationships in thecollected data were described by plotting scores of relevant principalcomponents (e.g., PC 1, PC 2, and PC 3) of the PCA model versus eachother, processing the data shown in FIGS. 13-15 using Equation 1.

To be even more specific, the data was communicated to a controller 6using a wireless RFID transducer that measured complex impedancecomprising a real part and imaginary part. Non-limiting examples ofthese measured parameters include shift of the maximum of the real partof the complex impedance, peak width of the complex impedance, andmagnitude of the real part of the complex impedance (peak intensity).Multivariate analysis permits an identification of main factorsaffecting the response of the sensor and relating to the response andinterferences. For example, referring now to FIG. 16, an exemplary graphillustrates PCA results showing a plot of second principal component(PC) as a function of experimental time depicting the results from tworeplicate exposures to about 600 ppb NaCl and three replicate exposuresto about 1,000 ppb NaCl. However, based on the response of a single PC,it is difficult to determine the effects on the sensor. Thus, acombination of several responses of the wireless sensor is analyzed. Forexample, referring now to FIG. 17, an exemplary graph shows PCA resultsof first and second PCs as a function of experimental time depicting theresults from two replicate exposures to about 600 ppb NaCl and threereplicate exposures to about 1,000 ppb NaCl. Clearly, analysis of morethan one response from a single sensor provides a desired discriminationbetween noise contributions and useful signal.

To ensure the quality of the wireless sensor data analyzed usingmultivariate tools, such as PCA, several statistical tools may beapplied. These tools are multivariate control charts and multivariatecontributions plots. Multivariate control charts use two statisticalindicators of the PCA model, such as Hotelling's T² and Q values plottedas a function of combinatorial sample or time. The significant principalcomponents of the PCA model are used to develop the T²-chart and theremaining PCs contribute to the Q-chart. The sum of normalized squaredscores, T² statistic, gives a measure of variation within the PCA modeland determines statistically anomalous samples:

T ² _(i) =t _(i)λ⁻¹ t _(i) ^(T) =x _(i) Pλ ⁻¹ P ^(T) x _(i)^(T)  (Equation 2)

where:

-   -   t_(i) is the i^(th) row of Tk,    -   the matrix of k scores vectors from the PCA model,    -   λ⁻¹ is the diagonal matrix containing the inverse of the        eigenvalues associated with the K eigenvectors (principal        components) retained in the model,    -   x_(i) is the i^(th) sample in X, and    -   P is the matrix of K loadings vectors retained in the PCA model        (where each vector is a column of P).        The Q residual is the squared prediction error and describes how        well the PCA model fits each sample. It is a measure of the        amount of variation in each sample not captured by K principal        components retained in the model:

Q _(i) =e _(i) e _(i) ^(T) =x _(i)(I−PkPk ^(T))x _(i) ^(T)  (Equation 3)

-   -   where: e_(i) is the row of E, and    -   I is the identity matrix of appropriate size (n×n).

Referring to FIGS. 18 and 19, exemplary multivariate Q and T2 statisticscontrol charts for the dynamic data from the wireless sensor arepresented, respectively. These control charts illustrate that severaldata points exceed the 95% confidence limits for the T2 and Q statisticsdescribed by the PCA model. The contributions plots of these statisticalparameters can be used to track the origin of the largest contributorsto these alarms.

Over time, the chemical sensor response can drift and lead to erroneousresults. Therefore, compensation for the drift can enhance the sensorlong-term performance and enable accurate results. An embodiment ofusing the chemical sensor, therefore, comprises introducing a liquid tothe sensor, contacting the chemical probe (i.e., chemical sensor) and aconductivity probe (i.e., conductivity sensor) to determine theconcentration of a particular species (e.g., ion) in the liquid, as wellas the conductivity (e.g., microSiemens per centimeter) for that liquidat that time. The chemical concentration measurements can then becorrected (e.g., adjusted) by the conductivity measurements tocompensate for the drift, as the conductivity of the solution will bechanged non-selectively by the addition of any species to the solution.This correction is possible in any type of liquid so long as theconductivity probe (conductivity sensor) has sufficient sensitivity tomeasure a change in conductivity of the liquid over time (e.g.,depending upon the sensitivity of the sensor and the noise). Hence, thesensor can comprise chemical probe(s) (i.e., chemical sensor(s); e.g.,the sensor array), conductivity probe(s) (i.e., conductivity sensor(s)),and, optionally, temperature probe(s) (i.e., temperature sensor(s)),wherein, as with the chemical probe, the conductivity probe is in fluidcommunication with the liquid to enable a conductivity determination.For example, a first conductivity probe can be located in liquid 8(e.g., to measure conductivity in the liquid 8), and/or a secondconductivity probe can be located in chamber 42 to measure conductivityin the liquid in chamber 42.

The conductivity probe can provide measurements of conductivity obtainedin the DC mode. The conductivity sensor provides measurements ofconductivity at multiple frequencies where complex impedancemeasurements are performed to obtain real and imaginary parts of thecomplex impedance.

The correction from the response of the conductivity and/or thetemperature probe can be performed by a multivariate correction.Multivariate correction for conductivity changes is performed whereconductivity is measured at different frequencies and Z′ and Z″ values(described above) are obtained at these different frequencies. Themeasured frequency range can be 0.00001 Hz to 100,000,000 Hz (i.e., 100MHz), or more specifically, 0.0001 Hz to 10 MHz, and even morespecifically, 0.001 Hz to 5 MHz. These multifrequency conductivityresponses are further combined with the response of the chemical sensor,or sensor array, using multivariate analysis tools by combining a datamatrix from the conductivity probe and the data matrix from chemicalsensor and doing multivariate analysis on the resulting combined matrixusing the multivariate analysis tools are described above. Optionally,correction from the conductivity sensor can be performed by a univariatecorrection. A nonlimiting example of univariate correction is when theresponse from chemical sensor is normalized by the response of theconductivity sensor.

In one embodiment, chemical sensor drift correction is performed by acomparative correction. When a chemically induced change in theconductivity response is measured that exceeds a preset conductivitythreshold, a chemical sensor measurement is performed. The chemicalsensor measurement is the difference between the chemical sensorresponse before the threshold change in the conductivity sensor responseand the chemical sensor response after the threshold change inconductivity sensor response. The threshold conductivity response is anarbitrary value that can be calculated or specified at varioustemperatures for specified detection limits when the baselineconductivity is known. For example, ultrapure water at 25° C. has aconductivity of 0.055 μS/cm. The threshold value to perform a chemicalsensor measurement could be chosen to be, for example, 0.1 μS/cm (whenthe impurities present in the water caused the conductivity to exceed0.1 μS/cm, a chemical sensor measurement would be performed). As thedifferential chemical sensor measurement is performed over short periodsof time, the effect of drift should be minimized. Drift that occurswithout a corresponding change in conductivity will be ignored.

The temperature probe can be disposed in thermal communication with theliquid so as to enable a temperature determination to be obtained.Since, the responses of the conductivity probe and the chemical sensorare temperature dependent, temperature corrections can also be done onthe readings, with the temperature corrections being linear ornonlinear. In addition to the conductivity data matrix, temperature datacan also be added for the data analysis and compensation for temperatureaffects.

It is further noted that correction can be made for surface and bulkeffects of the film. To correct for surface and bulk effects in thesensor films, an identical sensor film composition is deposited into aworking chemical sensor and onto a control sensor. The working chemicalsensor measures a signal as described above. The control chemical sensormeasures the complex impedance signal similar to that shown in FIGS.8-10, but obtained when the transducer is coated with the controlsensing film. The bulk dielectric property of the film that is relatedto the leaching of the film components, other irreversible changes inthe film (such as incomplete diffusion of species from the film uponexposure to chemicals) and sensor film thickness, is determined from therelatively high frequency response, while the surface effects (e.g.,such as surface contamination of the film and erosion of the film) aredetermined from the relatively low frequency response.

The following examples are merely exemplary and are provided to furtherillustrate the sensor and the use thereof and are not intended to belimiting.

EXAMPLES Experiment 1

In the first experiment, a sensor 2 was constructed using a radiofrequency identification tag as a transducer 10 (operating at nominalfrequency of 13.56 MHz) and a polysulfone film 12. The RFID transducerwas purchased from Digi-Key, under part number 481-1067-1-ND.

The sensor was assembled by dissolving polysulfone in dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO, purchased from Aldrich Chemical Company Inc.) at 37° C. for 24hours to produce a solution having about 10%-15% solids by volume. Acoating was then applied to the RFID transducer and allowed to dry at37° C. for 24 hours. After the coating was dry, the resulting film 12had an average thickness of about 50 micrometers.

The polysulfone-coated sensor 2 was disposed within the conduit of atest apparatus. For comparison, an uncoated transducer 10 was alsodisposed within the conduit. A data acquisition system (LabVIEW,National Instruments, Inc) was operably connected to the sensor 2 anduncoated transducer 10 such that the Zmax could be recorded as thesensor 2 and the uncoated transducer 10 were subjected to varioussolutions comprising varying chemical contaminants at variousconcentrations.

The Zmax and magnitude of the real part of the complex impedance (peakintensity) of the polysulfone-coated sensor 2 and the uncoatedtransducer 10 were measured as a first aqueous solution comprising about100 ppb NaSO4 was passed through the conduit. When the Zmax valuesappeared to plateau, water was passed through the conduit to purge theions from the film 12. This procedure was repeated using a secondaqueous solution comprising about 100 ppb HCl, a third aqueous solutioncomprising about 100 ppb NaCl, and a fourth aqueous solution comprisingabout 100 ppb KH2PO4.

Illustrated in FIG. 20 is the exemplary graph generated duringExperiment 1. As can be seen, the Z max responses of the uncoated RFIDtransducer and the polysulfone coated RFID transducer 10 were normalizedby the respective responses to NaCl. This signal normalization wasperformed to assess the diversity of the response of the sensors to fourdifferent ionic solutions when the transducer is uncoated and coatedwith the sensing film 12 (polysulfone). As shown, the response patternsfor four solutions obtained with uncoated and coated transducers aredifferent as desired for the application of this approach fordifferentiation between the different ionic solutions.

Experiment 2

In a second experiment, a sensor 2 was constructed using a radiofrequency identification tag as a transducer 10 (operating at nominalfrequency of 13.56 MHz) and a poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate) film 12.The sensor was assembled by dissolving poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate)(Aldrich Chemical Co.) in 1-methoxy-2-propanol (Aldrich) at 20° C. for24 hours to produce a solution having about 10%-15% solids by volume. Acoating was then applied to the RFID transducer and allowed to dry at20° C. for 24 hours. The resulting film 12 had an average thickness ofabout 10-50 micrometers.

The poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate) coated sensor was disposed in a testapparatus similar to that utilized in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2,however an uncoated transducer was not employed. The apparatus wascapable of measuring the Zmax of the poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate)coated sensor 2 with respect to time.

The poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate) coated sensor was subjected to afirst aqueous solution comprising 40 ppb NaCl. When the Zmax valueappeared to plateau, water was introduced to purge the ions from thefilm 12. Thereafter a second aqueous solution comprising 8 ppb NaCl waspassed through the conduit. When the Zmax value appeared to plateau,water was introduced to purge the ions from the film 12. Thereafter, athird aqueous solution comprising 14 ppb HCl was passed through theconduit. When the Zmax value appeared to plateau, water was introducedto purge the ions from the film 12. Thereafter, a fourth aqueoussolution comprising 72 ppb HCl was passed through the conduit. When theZmax value appeared to plateau, water was introduced to purge the ionsfrom the film 12.

Illustrated in FIG. 21 is the exemplary graph that illustrates theresults of Experiment 2, wherein the graph shows that the Zmax valuestarts at that of water. As indicated, when the first solution isintroduced, at about 200 seconds, the Zmax begins to decrease as aresult of the ions passing into the film 12. At about 300 seconds, theZmax reaches a plateau, whereat water was introduced into the conduit toflush the NaCl ions form the film 12. As is noticed, again the Zmaxreturned to about that of water. At about 425 seconds, the secondsolution was added, and the Zmax began to decrease and reached a plateauat about 600 seconds. It is noted that the plateau of the secondsolution does not exhibit the Zmax value of the first solution,therefore, the sensor 2 is capable of providing a Zmax that is dependentupon concentration. This can also be seen when comparing the Zmax of thethird solution to that of the fourth solution. In addition, the NaClgenerally exhibits a greater Zmax value than that of HCl (comparing 8ppb NaCl to 14 ppb HCl, and 40 ppb NaCl to 72 ppb HCl), hence the amountof NaCl ions that migrated into the film 12 is greater than the amountof HCl ions allowed to pass. Further, it is noted that with the waterpurge between sampling, the measured Zmax returns to about baseline.

Experiment 3

In a third experiment, a sensor 2 was constructed using a two-electrodegold interdigitated transducer 10 (see FIG. 3) and a polyaniline (PANI)film 12. The aniline monomer was purchased from Aldrich Chemical CompanyInc., under part number 242284

The polymer film 12 was deposited by electropolymerizing the anilinemonomer on the surface of the transducer at a concentration of 0.1 Maniline in 1 M H₂SO₄ under a cycling applied potential between −0.3 Vand 1.1 V versus a silver/silver chloride reference at a rate of 50 mVper second. The resulting polyaniline film 12 had an average thicknessof about 1 to about 100 micrometers.

The polyaniline coated sensor 4 was connected to a data acquisitionsystem operated using LabVIEW, National Instruments and subjected to anaqueous solution comprising 40 ppb ZnCl. When the impedance appeared toplateau, water was introduced to purge the ions from the film 12.Thereafter a second aqueous solution comprising 190 ppb ZnCl was passedthrough the conduit. When the impedance appeared to plateau, water wasintroduced to purge the ions from the film 12. Thereafter, a thirdaqueous solution comprising 151 ppb ZnCl was passed through the conduit.When the impedance appeared to plateau, water was introduced to purgethe ions from the film 12.

In FIG. 22 an exemplary graph illustrates the results of Experiment 3,

wherein the graph shows real impedance in ohms with respect to time. Theplot starts at an impedance signal of the sensor in water (e.g., about1.127×10⁶ ohms). At about 500 seconds the first solution is introducedand the impedance decreases to about 1.175×10⁶ ohms at about 600 secondswhereat the conduit is purged with water, returning the impedance tothat of water. At about 1500 seconds, the second solution is introducedto the test apparatus, which causes the impedance to drop to about8.75×10⁵ ohms at about 1800 seconds, and was then flushed. At about 2600seconds, the third solution was introduced, which caused the impedanceto drop to about 1.00×106 ohms at about 2,900 seconds.

Experiment 4

In a fourth experiment, an interdigitated electrode (IDE), such as atwo-electrode gold interdigitated transducer having 10 micrometer (μm)wide electrodes and a spacing between electrodes of 10 μm, was employed.(see FIG. 3) This IDE was coated with an aniline polymer film 12 usingan aniline monomer obtained from Aldrich Chemical Co. The anilinemonomer was electropolymerized on the surface of the IDE by firstsubjecting it to a solution of 0.1 M aniline in 1M H₂SO₄ and cycling theapplied potential between −0.3 volts (V) and 1.1 V versus asilver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) reference (50 millivolts per second(mV/sec) scan rate).

The polyaniline (PANT) coated IDE was exposed to samples comprisingchloride and sulfate contaminants in ultrapure water. To be morespecific, the samples comprised solutions having 40 ppb, 190 ppb, and151 ppb ZnCl₂ and 40 ppb, 190 ppb, and 290 ppb ZnSO₄ in water.Information was received from the IDE's via a data acquisition systemconfigured to measure and log the real and imaginary data components ofcomplex impedance in the range of 20 Hz to 1 MHz.

Selectivity and sensitivity of the responses provided by the PANI-coatedIDE transducer is presented in FIG. 23 as a principal componentsanalysis plot. In the plot, two principal components (PC1 and PC2) areplotted. As can be seen in the plot, the PANI coated IDE exhibits highselectivity and sensitivity in analysis of ZnCl₂ and ZnSO₄ solutions.

Experiment 5

In this experiment, a method for automatic sensor drift correction isdemonstrated. A sulfate sensor film was developed that utilized aformulated polymeric composition such as 31.8 wt % poly(vinylchloride)(PVC), 64.5 wt % plasticizer (such as bis(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (DOS)),1.3 wt % neutral salt (tetradodecylammonium tetrakis (4-chlorophenyl)borate (TDDATCPB)), 1.1 wt % ion exchanger (such as tetradodecylammonium chloride (TDDMACl)), and 1.3 wt % sulfate ionophore (such as1,3-[bis(3-phenylthioure-idomethyl)]benzene).

The sensor film solution was drop coated onto a tip of an electrode,followed by solvent evaporation at room temperature for X hours. Sulfatedetection was performed with the resulting sensor by exposing the sensorto 5, 25, 50, and 100 ppb of sulfate ions in ultrapure deionized water.The conductivity of the water was also monitored in parallel withsulfate detection. FIG. 24 shows results of replicate exposures of thesulfate sensor to different sulfate concentrations and simultaneousconductivity measurements, with conductivity provided in microSiemensper centimeter (μS/cm or microS/cm), potential (V vs. Ag/AgCl), and timein hours (h).

FIG. 24 demonstrates a slight but noticeable drift in the sulfate sensorresponse over 60 hours of testing. Thus, a method has been developed tocompensate for this sensor drift. The method utilizes a response of aconductivity probe to correct for the drift in the chemical ions sensorresponse. The correction is performed by normalizing the response of thechemical ion sensor by the response of the conductivity probe. Thiscorrection became possible because of the ultrapure nature of the testedwater that mimics the water of nuclear reactors (e.g., the conductivitysensor is sufficiently sensitive to detect a change in conductivity forthis particular sample. The conductivity of water of nuclear reactors istypically 0.05 to 0.15 microS/cm and increases in the presence ofdifferent ions.) In water with very high background concentration ofions (such as drinking water, tap water, environmental water), suchcorrection using conductivity of water is problematic at best, andessentially impossible. Desirably, the liquid (e.g., water), has abackground conductivity (i.e., without the ions of interest), of lessthan 1 microS/cm.

Experimental demonstration of this method is illustrated in FIG. 25. Thetop graph of FIG. 25 shows an original response of the sulfate sensorupon four replicate exposures to 0, 5, 25, 50, and 100 ppb of sulfateions (e.g., the results illustrated in FIG. 24 were regraphed in FIG.25). Clearly, because of the drift in sensor response, these fourresponse curves were offset from each other. Line 1 is for the first setof responses illustrated in FIG. 24 (e.g., up to 15 hours), line 2 isfor the second set of responses (e.g., between 15 hours and 30 hours),line 3 is for the third set of responses (e.g., 30 hours to 45 hours),and line 4 is for the fourth set of responses (e.g., 45 hours to 60hours). However, upon correction (e.g., normalization) of the responseof the chemical ion sensor by the change in conductivity value of theliquid (e.g., water), the replicate response curves are morereproducible as shown in the bottom graph of FIG. 25. In other words,using the change in conductivity, compensation for the drift of thesensor was successfully attained.

The disclosed detection methods and contaminant detection systems offerseveral notable advantages. Firstly, the contaminant detection systemsincorporate sensors and sensor arrays that can be purged to remove ionsfrom the sensor's film and transducer that can build up thereon. Thisability allows for the calibration of the sensor between sensing modes,which can reduce and/or eliminate interference caused by ion built-upand reduce baseline drift. Further, the sensors and sensor arraysdisclosed herein can employ films that selectively allow the transportof ions therethrough. This minimizes interference caused by undesiredcontaminant ions within the liquid. Yet further, the sensors and sensorarrays can comprise multiple films of differing membranes, which allowthe methods for operating the contaminant detection system which enablethe system to determine the presence of interfering ions formnon-desired contaminants and evaluate the concentration of theseinterfering ions such that the concentration of these ions can beaccounted for to improve the accuracy of the determination of theconcentration of the contaminant of interest within the liquid. Yet evenfurther, the sensors and sensor arrays employ a small volume of liquid(e.g., water), which decreases sampling time, and can be configured in amodular design such that components of the sensor can be replaced ifneeded.

Ranges disclosed herein are inclusive and combinable (e.g., ranges of“up to about 25 wt %, or, more specifically, about 5 wt % to about 20 wt%”, is inclusive of the endpoints and all intermediate values of theranges of “about 5 wt % to about 25 wt %,” etc.). “Combination” isinclusive of blends, mixtures, alloys, reaction products, and the like.Furthermore, the terms “first,” “second,” and the like, herein do notdenote any order, quantity, or importance, but rather are used todistinguish one element from another, and the terms “a” and “an” hereindo not denote a limitation of quantity, but rather denote the presenceof at least one of the referenced item. The modifier “about” used inconnection with a quantity is inclusive of the state value and has themeaning dictated by context, (e.g., includes the degree of errorassociated with measurement of the particular quantity). The suffix“(s)” as used herein is intended to include both the singular and theplural of the term that it modifies, thereby including one or more ofthat term (e.g., the colorant(s) includes one or more colorants).Reference throughout the specification to “one embodiment”, “anotherembodiment”, “an embodiment”, and so forth, means that a particularelement (e.g., feature, structure, and/or characteristic) described inconnection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodimentdescribed herein, and may or may not be present in other embodiments. Inaddition, it is to be understood that the described elements may becombined in any suitable manner in the various embodiments. The termssensor and probe are used interchangeably herein.

All cited patents, patent applications, and other references areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety. However, if a termin the present application contradicts or conflicts with a term in theincorporated reference, the term from the present application takesprecedence over the conflicting term from the incorporated reference.

While the invention has been described with reference to exemplaryembodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art thatvarious changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted forelements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. Inaddition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situationor material to the teachings of the invention without departing from theessential scope thereof. Therefore, it is intended that the inventionnot be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best modecontemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the inventionwill include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appendedclaims.

1. An apparatus for the detection of contaminants in a liquid,comprising: a sensor including a film, a transducer and a purge chamberdisposed between the film and the transducer such that the film and thetransducer are in direct fluid contact with the purge chamber, the purgechamber including a manifold having an inlet and an outlet to allow apurge media to flow through the purge chamber, wherein the film isdisposed within an opening of a conduit containing a liquid with acontaminant such that the film is in direct fluid contact with theliquid and wherein the film is made of a material that allows ionictransport of a contaminant from the liquid, through the film, and intothe purge chamber; and a controller electronically coupled to thetransducer for receiving electrical information from the sensor anddetermining a concentration of the contaminant in the liquid. 2.(canceled)
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the polymeric materialis selected from the group consisting of polysulfone, polyaniline,organosiloxane, poly vinyl chloride, poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate),polyurethane, acrylate copolymer, sol-gel, and combinations comprisingat least one of the foregoing polymeric materials.
 4. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the polymeric material comprises an ionophoreconfigured to selectively bind to an ion of interest.
 5. The apparatusof claim 1, wherein the film comprises an additive capable of respondingto an ion of interest in water of a nuclear reactor.
 6. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the transducer is in operable communication with thecontroller via radio frequency.
 7. (canceled)
 8. The apparatus of claim1, further comprising a conductivity probe, wherein, when the sensor isin use, the conductivity probe is in fluid communication with and isconfigured to detect the conductivity of the liquid.
 9. The apparatus ofclaim 8, further comprising a temperature probe, wherein, when thesensor is in use, the temperature probe is in thermal communication withand is configured to detect the temperature of the liquid.
 10. Anapparatus for the detection of contaminants within a liquid, comprising:a sensor array comprising; a first film disposed within an opening of aconduit containing a liquid with a plurality of contaminants, the firstfilm having a first surface and a second surface, wherein, during use,the first surface is in direct fluid contact with the liquid; a firstpurge chamber in direct fluid contact with the second surface of thefirst film; a second film having a first surface and a second surface,wherein the first surface is in direct fluid contact with the firstpurge chamber; a second purge chamber in direct fluid contact with thesecond surface of the second film; a first transducer electronicallycoupled to the first purge chamber; and a second transducerelectronically coupled to the second purge chamber; and a controllerelectronically coupled to the first transducer and the secondtransducer, and is configured to determine a concentration of theplurality of contaminants in the liquid. 11-12. (canceled)
 13. Theapparatus of claim 10, wherein the first film and/or the second filmcomprise a polymeric material selected from the group consisting ofpolysulfone, polyaniline, organosiloxanes, poly vinyl chloride, poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate), polyurethane, acrylate copolymer, sol-gels,and combinations comprising at least one of the foregoing polymericmaterials.
 14. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the first film and/orthe second film is an inorganic material capable of hindering thetransport of a non-desired species therethrough.
 15. The apparatus ofclaim 10, wherein first film and/or the second film comprises anionophore capable of selectively binding to an ion of interest.
 16. Theapparatus of claim 10, wherein first film and/or the second filmcomprises an additive capable of selectively responding to an ion ofinterest in water of a nuclear reactor.
 17. The apparatus of claim 10,wherein the first transducer and/or the second transducer are connectedin operable communication to the controller via radio frequency.
 18. Anuclear power plant, comprising: a nuclear reactor configured to produceenergy, wherein the nuclear reactor comprises water; a contaminantdetector configured to detect a contaminant in the water, the detectorcomprising a sensor including a film, a transducer and a purge chamberdisposed between the film and the transducer such that the film and thetransducer are in direct fluid contact with the purge chamber, the purgechamber including a manifold having an inlet and an outlet to allow apurge media to flow through the purge chamber, wherein the film isdisposed within an opening of a conduit containing a liquid with acontaminant such that a first surface of the film is in direct fluidcontact with the water and wherein the film is made of a material thatallows ionic transport of a contaminant from the liquid, through thefilm, and into the purge chamber; and a controller electronicallycoupled to the transducer for receiving electrical information from thesensor and determining a concentration of the contaminant in the water.19. The apparatus of claim 18, further comprising a conductivity probe,wherein, when the sensor is in use, the conductivity probe is in fluidcommunication with and is configured to detect the conductivity of thewater.
 20. The apparatus of claim 19, further comprising a temperatureprobe, wherein, when the sensor is in use, the temperature probe is inthermal communication with and is configured to detect the temperatureof the water.